Fort Mose: the Spanish settlement
in the USA that protected the freedom of the Afro-American population
The influence of European values
WHEN EUROPE STARTED EXPLORING AND TRADING AROUND THE WORLD, LIBERAL VALUES WERE DELIVERED TO MANY COMMUNITIES ABROAD
In Renew Europe we believe that the European Union and America are bound by strong historic, economic and cultural ties, and their relations are remarkably on numerous aspects, notably on the social, demographic, cultural, scientific-technological, commercial and artistic fronts.
“In Renew Europe we believe that the European Union and America are bound by strong historic, economic and cultural ties, and their relations are remarkably on numerous aspects”
The strategic political engagement operates through a number of channels: political dialogues with American countries and regional groups are to guide relations, with a commitment to regional integration and a responsible trade and investment policy, the respect of human rights, gender equality policies, digitalisation, environmental protection and labour standards, while recognising their diversity.
The parliamentary dimension has to be considered as an important instrument of dialogue and political engagement, alongside close commitment with civil society , think tanks, local governments, businesses, employers’ and workers’ organisations, human rights defenders cultural organisation , academics, and youth.
“When talking about the legacy related to trade around the world, we cannot forget those Europeans who took to America such avant-guard values such as the defense of the black communities in Florida.”
When talking about the legacy related to trade around the world, we cannot forget those Europeans who took to America such avant-guard values such as the defense of the black communities in Florida. Nowadays, when the BLM movement has reached visibility worldwide -even this Parliament and our group Renew Europe has backed initiatives against racism and discrimination- it is a good moment to remember and defend our legacy. In particular, the case of Fort Mose, a settlement by some of the first europeans to settle trasatlantic trade routes, went beyond trading and became a truly pro human rights campaign, defending the black communities in America from slavery and oppresion.
SPAIN AND GREAT BRITAIN: TWO OPPOSING MODELS
Why did these slaves depart from the British territory to the areas commanded by Spaniards take place? This is the first question to understand the history of the Fort Mose and its settlers. However, the answer is no different from the freedom that these communities desired, and could be found in South Carolina, where the Spaniards ruled, in Florida.
The fact that slaves found freedom in the Spanish territory was not unusual in itself. In fact, freedom had been a possibility for slaves in the Spanish world since the 13th century (Tannenbaum, 1947). The Spanish law considered slaves as a legal person and granted them certain rights and protections that would not exist in other slavery systems such as the British. It was the acknowledgment of the slave’s humanity and rights, and the influence of the Christian humanism in the Spanish law and the social practices, which made possible the existence of an important free black class in the Hispanic world.
In the time when Spain held its possessions in Florida, despite slavery being legal, the conditions were not the same as a few kilometers north where the British territory was established. Tannenbaum (1947) explains that under the Spanish control, the property right existed, which in the Caribbean was converted into the right of “self-purchase”, the right of personal security, the prohibition to separate members of a family and the access to courts. In addition, slaves were incorporated into the Catholic church and received the sacraments, including marriage, thus being able to maintain family ties.
Undoubtedly, although these differences existed, many authors argue that compliance with these rules could be “lax” in some Spanish territories (Genovese, 1968), but we can argue that it actually was a more benign and protective system than the one the British implemented in their colonies. Proof of this is, as we will analyze below, how slaves escaped to get to Spanish territories fleeing from the English control.
These factors, in short, indicate two ways of governing in what today is the United States. Spanish Florida, that had better conditions for the black slaves in its legal system, and the British colonies, that did not consider these rights. That is decisive to understand why many men, women and child risked their lives to get to the “sanctuary” of Saint Augustine.
SPAIN’S INTERESTS AND THE ROLE OF THE BLACK MILITIA
Florida was of great strategic importance for the Spaniards. Mainly because of its location, as it helped to control a great part of the routes in the Caribbean sea and it did also protect the Mexican mines from French and British attacks.
This factor is important to understand the added value of slaves from the British areas flee to the Spanish Empire territory. The fugitives were important to the Spanish possessions regarding the valuable knowledge and skills they brought with them and the work and military services carried out in the service of Spain (Littlefield, 1981). In time, these fugitives would prove to be of great value in the service of Spain and a true worry for the English.
In fact, in the 16th century, many black slaves had been organized into militia units in Cuba, Mexico, Cartagena or Puerto Rico. These were also essential in Florida, as they helped to build Saint Augustine, the oldest city in the United States, and helped with the defense tasks and other tasks required in the settlement.
In 1683, the first militia was formed, composed by black slaves in Florida, as it is gathered in the General Archive of the Indies. For all this, African slaves fleeing British possessions in search of their freedom were also a very important support in the Spanish domain of Florida.
In 1670, the British colonists founded the Charles Town settlement, known today as Charleston in South Carolina, which posed a major threat to Spanish sovereignty in the area. The suspicions did not take long to become real and the British, allied with some natives, launched offensives against the Spanish missions in the region. As a response to that, Spaniards also started a campaign against the British possessions.
In 1686, a Spanish assault group, numbering at least 53 Indians and blacks, attacked Port Royal and Edisto (Landers, 1990). As it is showed in the British correspondence of that time, the Governor Joseph Morton stated that they took “money and silver and thirteen slaves at a value of 1,500 pounds”. Besides, in subsequent negotiations, the new Governor of Carolina, James Colleton, demanded the return of the stolen slaves, as well as those “that run daily to your towns”, but the Spaniards refused these demands.
The British concern about their slaves escaping to the Spanish territory and their search for freedom in the Florida territory was observed. That could damage them military and economically and the fact that Spain accepted the escaped slaves favored that many more tried to copy that practice, producing instability in the British territory.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST ONES TO FLORIDA AND THE REAL CEDULA (ROYAL DECREE) OF CHARLES II
The first contact between governments and the correspondence kept from that time, suggests that the slaves in British areas were more and more conscious of the better treat that they received in the Spanish Florida and that they had the opportunity to be free there.
Little by little, the word was spread among a higher number of slaves and they were indicated how to get to the “sanctuary” of Saint Augustine. Thus, in 1687, the first documented group of fugitives arrived at the Spanish territory, formed by eight men, two women and one child.
The Spanish Governor at that time, Diego Quiroga, reported the news to Spain and assured that they asked to be baptized according to the “true faith”. This fact was precisely the one that the Governor used as an excuse to not return the just arrived ones to the British control area, even that it was asked insistently from there. The British contended that one of the fugitives had
committed murder when escaping, but the Governor Quiroga took responsibility for that trial to be celebrated, in any case, in the Spanish territory, refusing to return that fugitive.
The first slaves that arrived at Saint Augustine lodged in the Spaniards’ houses, in order to learn the customs and exercised the religion with them. Men worked in blacksmith’s shops and building the fort of San Marcos and they did all get a salary. The purpose was to allow them to integrate themselves in the social life model of the Spaniards at that time in Florida.
After that first group, more fugitives kept coming to the Spanish properties and it was then when the Governor decided to seek advice from the king about how to proceed regarding that situation. Carlos II enacted a Real Cedula (Royal Decree) in 1693 that gave freedom to the fugitive slaves from the British colonies, men and women, provided that they embrace Catholic faith.
That, that was considered a provocation by the British, made more slaves to try to get to Florida and, little by little, more and more men and women were arriving at Saint Augustine.
In the meantime, in the English territory, more strict laws were approved to dissuade the slaves from escaping, but they did not have effect since freedom was an attraction stronger than fear. Besides, the British were worried that the new Spanish policy regarding escaped slaves damaged them economically, as the slaves had a main role in their plantations.
To try to stop the escape, the colonists in Carolina established patrol systems and set explorers’ small boats in the aquatic routes to Saint Augustine, but the slaves, with determination and inventiveness managed to escape to the Spanish territory (Wood, 1996).
THE DIFFICULTIES THAT THEY DID ALSO FIND IN FLORIDA
As explained before, although Carlos II granted freedom to the black slaves that escaped from the British control, they did also make steps back when looking for that freedom.
While fugitives kept arriving to the Spanish territory, the government of the region changed hands. In 1729, Antonio de Benavides was governing in Florida, who initially respected the spirit of the regulations enacted by the king, but at the end would develop actions opposite to the orders in the Real Cedula (Royal Decree).
Benavides sold some of the arrived ones in public auction, to make an economic refund to the British. To do that, he alleged that he was afraid of the British acting against the Spanish interests and using force to recover their slaves. According to Landers (1990), Benavides authorized to sell slaves in Florida and in other Spanish territories such as Havana and the British added that the Governor may be getting benefits from these sales.
Many of the slaves that arrived at Florida at that time had previously collaborated with the Spanish forces against the British. An example of that was the slave named Francisco Menendez, to whom Benavides had already requested to command the black militia of Saint Augustine in 1726. This militia was key in the defense of the Spanish city during the British besiege leaded by
John Palmer in 1728. Nevertheless, despite his brave dedication to these occasions, slaves did not achieve what they had been fighting for so hard: their freedom.
That situation created diplomatic problems and complaints about the practices that were being established in Florida. All that leaded the Spanish monarchy to enact two new decrees in 1733 to clarify how to act regarding the arrived ones from South Carolina and Georgia.
First of all, economic refund to British was forbidden and that way, it was attempted to remove the excuse used to sell slaves. Besides, it was claimed that these black slaves that had been resold in Spanish territory would get their freedom, proving too their great service for Spain when defending their territories, though it was stipulated that first they had to accomplish four years of military service.
However, all that was not enough for the slaves that were looking for freedom and did not satisfy their situation. Leaded by Francisco Menéndez they attempted to find support for their cause understanding that the spirit of the rules that had brought them there was still being broken. They did not find that support among the Governors, but their fortune would soon change thanks to the arrival of a new Governor to Florida: Manuel de Montiano.
THE ACHIEVED DREAM: THE BUILDING OF MOSE
Montiano, a native of Bilbao, became Governor in 1737 and will soon receive the visit of Francisco Menendez who presented his story and the situation of everyone that, just like him, had arrived at Florida and had been sold again. His story was supported by a Yamassee chief, that was called Jorge, who took into consideration his “more than loyal” service to Spain defending its territories against the English and blamed some Spanish citizens in Saint Augustine for not behaving as required by the regulations.
Montiano investigated the situation and decreed in 1738 that all of them shall be free. Even more, he tried to bring back all the slaves sold in Havana, even that he only was able to bring back in the end. After that, the Governor established for these free men a new location, around three kilometers north from Saint Augustine that was called Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose. That was the formal beginning of Fort Mose.
The idea was that this new location was used for this community of former slaves to freely develop their life there. The Governor commissioned them the building of the settlement and provided them with food until they were able to start cultivating their own land.
Mose, besides, was strategically important for Spaniards, since it was located more north, it would be a first defense of the Saint Augustine city from possible English attacks. The freed slaves understood the defense role expected from them and, as the Governor Montiano told the king by letter, they swore to be “the cruelest enemies of the English” and “to shed their blood for the Great Spanish Crown and the Saint Faith”.
From what we know today, Fort Mose was formed by 20 barracks and a church, protected by a wall around which the land for harvesting was located. It would have stone fortifications and some trenches and wire for the defense of the settlement. In command of all this was the aforementioned Francisco Menendez and it is estimated that around 100 people lived there at this time.
All that development continued to create tension with the English that requested the Spanish authorities the return of the escaped slaves. Some of those that arrived at Fort Mose in 1738 came from Port Royal, which was under the control of the English Captain Caleb Davis. He personally went to Saint Augustine where he found some of his old slaves that, according to him, made fun of him when he tried to get them back. Davis even filed a lawsuit against the Governor Montiano requesting 7,600 pesos for his 27 escaped slaves, however, it did never prosper. Other colonists from Carolina tried to do the same in 1739, but they were not successful either. Montiano received them with hospitality, but he refused to return those protected by the rules that protected the escaped slaves.
Soon, the English problem would turn to be more than just economic, and the conflict then was not only the slaves escape, but also the riots that were happening in their colonies. More and more news reached the Spanish authorities about revolts of black slaves against the English. In addition, the native Indian allied to the Spaniards sent them news about them finding slaves in the forests fleeing to Saint Augustine, and how they murdered the English to flee from their captivity and reach the territory where they would achieve freedom.
The authorities in South Carolina and Georgia blamed the Spanish sanctuary available in the nearby city of Saint Augustine for the rebellions that they were suffering, and the relations between the areas controlled by Spaniards and the British were increasingly deteriorating.
Doubtlessly, the news of the first settlement of free blacks, in what is today the United States, got wind of many other slaves and the word was spread among them that, in turn, did not doubt when challenging the ruling power to reach their freedom.
THE WAR OF JENKINS’ EAR
With the outbreak of the War of Jenkins’ Ear, Guerra de Asiento in Spanish, international and local conflicts between Spain and the United Kingdom merged and intensified. The fights of this war took place in different locations and the Spanish Florida also came into play. In this way the English, already angry and concerned about the instability in their colonies, had a perfect pretext to attack the Spanish positions in the southeast of North America.
It was in January 1740, when the Governor of Georgia, James Oglethorpe, attacked Florida and managed to control Fort Pupo and Fort Picolata to the west of Saint Augustine. After these victories, Oglethorpe composed a larger troop that was formed with regiments from Georgia and South Carolina, and it was also supported by native Indians. All that with the purpose of preparing an important offensive against the more relevant Spanish positions, such as Saint Augustine.
In these circumstances, the free black militia of Fort Mose was essential to the Spaniards during the war. They initially collaborated in the fortification of key settlements for Spaniards and developed incursions in British areas to carry out intelligence operations and to give information to Governor Montiano.
Doubtlessly, the news of the first settlement of free blacks, in what is today the United States, got wind of many other slaves and the word was spread among them that, in turn, did not doubt when challenging the ruling power to reach their freedom.
In one offensive, Fort Mose was attacked and conquered by the English, and the English Captain Palmer installed there. Montiano had to evacuate Mose, and all the inhabitants moved to Saint Augustine where they continued their work of military support. The English tried to take down the impregnable fortress of San Marcos where Spaniards and the inhabitants of Mose resisted.
Finally, Spaniards prepared the counter- offensive and after a surprise attack, they managed to recover Mose. In this battle, Francisco Menendez had an important role in a victory that demoralized the English troops and that was especially bloody, starting to be called Bloody Mose by the English. In July 1740, reinforcements from Cuba arrived in Florida, which forced the English to retreat back to Georgia and Carolina.
Montiano wrote to the king about the great work of all his troops and he made a special recommendation about Francisco Menendez. The Governor eulogized the attitude of Menendez when carrying out his service and the courage that he had shown in the battle of Mose. It is also proved that Menendez wrote the monarch at least twice asking for more recompense for his services in order to be able to live better, him, as well as the other combatants of the Mose militia. There is no evidence that these requests received a response, but thanks to their merits and the good behavior of men and women from Mose, as well as their ability to adapt to Spanish culture and customs, they were able to gain more autonomy and freedom, always supported by Montiano’s criterion.
FRANCISCO MENENDEZ AND HIS ADVENTURE AS PRIVATEER
At that time, privateers were abundant, understanding that privateer is the name given for the boat and its navigator, who were authorized by their countries to pursue and loot merchant ships from an enemy nation. Spain as well as in Great Britain carried out this practice, and Francisco Menendez became one.
The privateer boats were crewed by volunteers, some of who were from free black communities from Florida. This practice was important in a time when, after the war, provisions run low and the capture of enemy boats could help to compensate for that shortage.
Once again, Francisco Menendez proved his bravery and became key in the capture of several English boats. Nevertheless, it was him who was captured in 1741 by the Revenge, an English privateer ship. The English found Captain Menendez, who they tied to a cannon and threatened to castrate him after having recognized that he was the leader of the militia that recovered Mose. In any case, the English, as a punishment gave him 200 lashes, and left him under the care of the doctor, giving a clear message to the other captive blacks that were on the boat.
The Revenge arrived at the Bahamas where the English argued vehemently that freedmen should be sold again as slaves because “they dared to present themselves as free men” something that in their eyes was completely unacceptable. This was ruled on by the Judges and the prisoners were sold again as slaves. However, Menendez was not an easy man to hold prisoner and, even that it is not known if it was thanks to his legal astuteness or if he managed to escape from captivity, in 1752 he was back in the Spanish territory as Major of Fort Mose. (Landers, 1990).
This episode does also show us the ferocious hate that the English felt about the black slaves that considered themselves as freedmen and, especially, about those that defended the interests of the enemy: Spain. Sadly, many other men from Fort Mose that had been captured by the English were not able to return.
1740–1752: THE AFRO- AMERICAN COMMUNITY LIVING IN FLORIDA
In this period, although some men like Menendez left as privateers, there was a reasonably stable life in Saint Augustine. Most of the Afro-American community was getting integrated into Spanish social life since Mose could not be occupied as before. For twelve years, the inhabitants of the town of Mose lived among the Spaniards in Saint Augustine and that became key to achieve a deeper integration of these men and women with the Spanish population.
During this time, free blacks played valuable roles in the community: they worked on government projects, they were sailors and privateers, tracked down escaped prisoners and helped to find food for the city.
Moreover, the low population volume in Saint Agustin favored enhancing this cultural integration (Johnson & Roark, 1984).
On the other hand, the records of the churches of the time, state that many marriages were celebrated at that time and family ties started taking root in Saint Augustine, creating a cultural melting pot that could not be achieved in the British area. That was the case of Juan Jacinto Rodriguez and Ana Maria Menendez, one of the first to arrive from Carolina. Their son Juan married Cecilia, who arrived on another expedition from Carolina and their sister-in-law, with a free black that arrived from Cartagena, Colombia. A simple family line allows us to see how the Afro-American community was settled in the Spanish life with the guarantees of marriage, and the laws that protected them.
These family roots were well regarded by the Spaniards who also ascribe to the importance of family in society. The inhabitants of Mose and Spaniards shared a similar social model during these years.
Meanwhile, new settlers arrived and integrated into the community thanks to the family ties previously established. All that happened that way until to the Governor Melchor de Navarrete, successor of Montiano, decided to rebuild Mose and move the families there again.
THE INCOMPLETE TASK AND THE TREATY OF PARIS
Despite that Melchor de Navarrete had claimed the Spanish authorities that the families had moved again to Mose, that was not real. Fulgencio Garcia de Solis, who was Governor from 1752 to 1755, assured that that had not been fulfilled and that he had to resume the task of moving all the freed slaves to Mose.
However, that was not easy and tension among the parties arose. After living freely in Saint Augustine, many of the old slaves did not want to return to Mose since, as we previously saw, they were well adapted to live among Spaniards, and they thought it would be a step back for their freedom.
Garcia, besides, complained about some of the new ones that arrived, but he had to, by royal order, offer sanctuary to these men and women, though not necessarily in Saint Augustine. Because of that, the Governor ordered to build the barracks of Mose and that a Franciscan stayed there to take charge of their education. As we said previously, that was not an easy process, and tensions with the Governor increased.
Less is known about this period in Fort Mose, although it is believed that with the aim of the Garcia government, the relation between Saint Augustine and old slaves improved again. A census in 1759 recorded twenty-two households and a population of sixty-seven people in Mose, and almost a quarter of the population was children under fifteen.
In explanations and diagrams written by Father Juan Jose de Solana it is explained that, furthermore, some of the members of the community of Mose lived in Saint Augustine in these years.
Finally, after the Seven Years’ War, Florida was peacefully given to England in 1763 through the Treaty of Paris. Spaniards evacuated the settlers from their territories and the same happened with the old slaves that had previously escaped from English control, defended the Spanish properties, populated Mose and achieved their freedom. Most of the inhabitants in Florida were sent to Cuba and continued their lives as free men.
Although Spain later recovered Florida, nothing was the same again and few returned from Cuba to their territories. The English had dismantled what once was Fort Mose and, in general, for any repatriated to Florida, it was difficult to recover their lands and lives as they were before. When finally, with the Treaty of Adam-Onis, Spain sold Florida, the destination of most of the inhabitants was again Cuba; and the Spanish adventure in Florida finished.
FORT MOSE LEGACY
After the abandonment of Fort Mose, the settlement became pasture for the marshlands, and it was forgotten. In fact, nowadays there is no physical memory of what one day was the Spanish sanctuary, where for the first time in the history of the United States the Afro- American population lived freely. However, the example of Mose had a direct impact in his time, and it is also remembered today as well.
There were other localities similar to Mose in Spanish territories in America, but this was the only example of a free black settlement Landers, 1990). The inhabitants of Mose developed their life there in conditions of freedom that they had not known before in other territories and in a city that, for all practical purposes, was under their control. Despite the adversities, wars, exiles and persecutions, the old slaves stayed in Mose and kept their family ties at the same time that they helped other slaves that stayed in the British area.
Spaniards copied the Mose model later in other areas of the Caribbean and this also continued creating problems and disadvantages for the competing powers such as Great Britain or France. The example of the first ones to flee and the Spanish policies that protected them were the encouragement for many others that, even after Mose disappeared, continued escaping to the Spanish territory to achieve their freedom.
A great part of this story is known thanks to a team of specialists headed by Dr. Kathleen Deagan of the Florida Museum of Natural History who conducted archaeological and historical research at Fort Mose in the late 20th century. The historical documents of that time and the archaeological work helped to understand the details about the daily life in Mose.
Explorations found the remains of the fort itself, with its moat, clay-covered earthen walls and wooden buildings within the fort. They also found a great variety of artifacts such as military items, pistols, crushed bullets, domestic items such as thimbles, nails, pottery and glass bottles.
The National Register of Historic Places listed it in 1994 and to this day it is a tangible reminder of the people who risked, and often lost, their lives in their fight for freedom. The role of the Afro-American community is annually commemorated in Fort Mose, and the most important battles are recreated, as well as daily life in the settlement. In addition, it has a Visitor’s Center of the Florida State Park that shows the history of the site.
